Relative clauses
Analysis of the three relativisation strategies in Tadaksahak
Regula Christiansen & Stephen H. Levinsohn (2003), « Relative Clauses in Tadaksahak ». Resources
Strategies
ayo / ayondo
DEFINITE noun - RESTRICTIVE clause (identifies the referent)
immediately after the noun it modifies
Examples (18)
Ak a-ayimur-kat ayn barar [ayo a-bara Bamakoy]?
QST 3s-PERF-ramener-VEN 3s.GEN enfant REL 3s-PERF-être Bamako
Did he bring back his child who is in Bamako?
Ayal [ayo aya-aymay nin ka] a-ben.
travail REL 1s-PERF-avoir 2s LOC 3s-PERF-finir
The work that I have for you is finished.
A-emi a-su wuk awici [ayo a-da azruf ka].
forgeron 3s-PERF-frotter bracelet REL 3s-PERF-faire argent LOC
The blacksmith rubbed the bracelet that is made of silver.
Ci na imunas-kon [ayondo a-zumbu Sali daw]?
qui DET chameliers REL.PL 3p-PERF-descendre Rhali LOC
Who are the camel riders who dismounted at Rhali's place?
Kuna ayay bora [ayo a-taw-kat neda]!
trouve 1s personne REL 3s-PERF-arriver-VEN ici
Get me the person who arrived here!
Ajaqal [ayo aya-aymay nin ka] a-ben.
travail REL 1s-PERF-avoir 2s LOC 3s-PERF-finir
The work I have for you is finished.
Aya-guna bora [ayo se a-na taraswoyt].
1s-PERF-voir personne REL BEN 3s-PERF-donner robe
I saw the person to whom he had given a dress.
Alman [ayo se a-yikam] a-wuzuwuz.
troupeau REL BEN 3s-PERF-garder 3s-PERF-se.disperser
The herd that he guarded was scattered.
A-yed in angu [ayo ka i-yizday].
3s-PERF-retourner 3p.GEN lieu REL LOC 3p-PERF-habiter
He returned to the place where they live.
Zayri [ayo ka ni-sebded i ayan mo ka], zayri [ayo ayda] aya-b-na ana tayit.
jour REL LOC 2s-arrêter 3p 1s.GEN face LOC jour REL même 1s-IMPF-donner 2s.BEN génisse
The day that you bring them before me, that same day I will give you a heifer.
Asafat a-taw [ayo ka i-ten].
moment 3s-PERF-arriver REL LOC 3p-IMPF-arriver
The moment has come when they normally arrive.
Bay lam a-se-bay umuk [ayo enda a-te-da a].
savoir EXCL 1s-NEG.IMPF-savoir manière REL COM 1s-FUT-faire 3s
I really don't know how I am going to do it.
Bora [ayo a-kedi ta-yamt] a-zumbu-kat.
personne REL 3s-PERF-être.sur chameau 3s-PERF-descendre-VEN
The person who sat on the camel dismounted.
Man imunsuwa [ayondo a-b-furan andi se] a-ci ande-deraw?
où nourriture.PL REL.PL 1s-IMPF-jeter 2p BEN 1s-IMPF-dire 2p-IMPF-partager
Where are the foods that I threw to you, telling you to share them?
A-na a se bari [ayo senda b-zegedel].
3s-PERF-donner 3s BEN cheval REL LÀ-BAS IMPF-boitier
He gave him that horse which limped.
Dini bari [ayo yifren-an] ni-m-tebbet ayay ayn tekermujit ka anazmay.
prends cheval REL être.choisi-ADJZ 2s-SUBJ-frapper 1s 3s.GEN sabot LOC aiguille
Take a horse of good quality and hammer a needle in its hoof for me.
Taradag hinciini [ayo zen-i].
Taradag chèvre REL être.vieux-ADJZ
'Taradag' is an old goat.
Alukukuj cidi [ayo yibrar-an] [ayo ka tidi a-baqat].
Alukukush sel REL être.mauvais-ADJZ REL LOC saleté 3s-PERF-mélanger
'Alukukush' is salt which is of bad quality in which dirt is mixed.
∅
INDEFINITE noun - RESTRICTIVE clause (introduces a new referent)
no marker at all
Examples (18)
A-gar hamu [# f-keni aykaran daw].
3s-PERF-trouver viande IMPF-reposer chiots chez
She found meat that was lying next to the cubs.
Sa itila aru [# a-ten i daw] i-te-dini a i-m-da a enda tamu.
COMP chaque homme 3s-PERF-arriver 3p LOC 3p-FUT-prendre 3s 3p-SUBJ-faire 3s COM esclave
Each man who arrived at their place was taken to be made a slave.
Kela aya-mo tanfust [# ayan baba ayo zen-i a-da].
une.fois 1s-PERF-entendre histoire 1s.GEN père REL être.vieux-ADJZ 3s-PERF-faire
Once I heard a story of a deed that my grandfather did.
A-sesten a enda edag [# boren i-bara].
3s-PERF-demander 3s COM lieu gens 3p-PERF-être.dans
He asked her for a place where people were living.
A-f-kaykay har a-guna edag [# ka tahart a-hay].
3s-IMPF-marcher jusqu'à 3s-PERF-voir lieu LOC lionne 3s-PERF-accoucher
She walked around till she saw a place where a lioness had given birth.
I-kuna arat n tazara [# ka igararan aryen i-huru i].
3p-PERF-trouver chose GEN aspersion LOC plaines.sèches eau 3p-PERF-entrer 3s
They got a sprinkle of rain from which the dry plains received water.
Wa hinjin afereg [# enda tafan i-bara] [# enda alman i-huru-kat].
IMP répare haie COM trous 3p-PERF-être.dans COM troupeau 3p-PERF-entrer-VEN
Mend the hedge wherever there are holes, wherever the animals enter.
Har a-ten tamgart fo daw [# a-bara izagazan n gusen].
jusqu'à 3s-PERF-arriver vieille.femme INDEF chez PERF-être chats.sauvages GEN terriers
...until he arrived at an old woman's who lived in wildcats' burrows.
In lenkem a-ne-duwa bora se [# a-baya alhafiyat].
3p.GEN derrière 3s-NEG.PERF-être.mieux personne BEN PERF-vouloir paix
Following them is not good for somebody who seeks peace.
A-b-jigid ana aazar fo be [# b-yizar ari neda ka].
1s-IMPF-attendre 2s.BEN mare INDEF sur IMPF-être.devant 1p ici LOC
I am waiting for you on a pond that is ahead of us here.
Sa itila aru [# a-ten i daw] i-te-dini a i-m-da a enda tamu.
COMP chaque homme 3s-PERF-arriver 3p LOC 3p-FUT-prendre 3s 3p-SUBJ-faire 3s COM esclave
Each man who arrived at their place was taken to be made a slave.
Itila [# a-yiktikat aqay] tacidawt ayda a-te-sot-kat ayn wul ka.
chaque 3s-PERF-se.rappeler 1s oiseau même 3s-FUT-voler-VEN 3s.GEN cœur LOC
Whenever he remembers me, the same bird flies from his heart.
Har zarodi amanokal a-na ayn temgaden se ilanken [# ciday-enen].
jusqu'à jour.ce chef 3s-PERF-donner 3s.GEN filles BEN rubans être.rouge-ADJZ.PL
...until the day the chief gave his daughters red ribbons.
Tabuyant a-koy tugudu fo [# ber-i] n ciday.
vieux.mouton 3s-PERF-aller arbre INDEF être.grand-ADJZ GEN sous
The old sheep went under a big tree.
Bora a-fi [# a-may imunas] endanga wiji Idaksahak.
personne 3s-PERF-être.pas PERF-avoir chameaux si ce n'est Idaksahak
There is nobody who has camels if it is not the Idaksahak.
A-ne-yider ayn tenna, a-ne-da ho [# a-ci].
3s-NEG.PERF-tenir 3s.GEN promesse 3s-NEG.PERF-faire chose.ce 3s-PERF-dire
He did not keep his promise, he did not do what he said.
Endar a-bay ho [# a-bara a se alaxar], a-se-da a se he [# yibrar-an].
si 3s-PERF-savoir chose.ce PERF-être 3s BEN au.delà 3s-NEG.IMPF-faire 3s BEN chose être.mauvais-ADJZ
If she had known what was in the next world for her, she would not have done anything bad to him.
Ci na ho [# ni-bayaj]?
QST DET chose.ce 2s-PERF-vouloir
What do you want?
sa
NON-RESTRICTIVE clause (additional information, like a parenthesis)
may be separated from the noun by a pause
Examples (13)
A-b-jiken-an ayn nana se, [sa ayn man Aminata].
3s-IMPF-saluer-VERS 3s.GEN mère POUR COMPZR 3s.GEN nom Aminata
He greets his mother, whose name is Aminata.
A-zaw surgay fo, [sa itila zayri a-te-na imunas ija].
3s-PERF-épouser femme INDEF COMPZR chaque jour 3s-FUT-manger chameaux sept
He married a certain woman, who used to eat seven camels a day.
Mahamad intaynawt, da aya he adi [sa ni-yabuk].
Mohamed chacal fais 1s chose DET COMPZR 2s-PERF-être.sur.le.point.de.faire
Mohamed jackal, do to me that thing which you were about to do.
Way na-ayo, [sa tacidawt a-b-sekna armeni], a-ci.
femme DET-REL COMPZR petit.oiseau 3s-IMPF-montrer souffrance 3s-PERF-dire
The other woman, to whom the small bird was showing suffering, said...
Man na umuk [ayo enda] ar-te-guna way [# a-bara [gunnan]], [sa ayn hugu a-f-kedi tazagant n miya kuku-an]?
où DET manière REL COM 1p-FUT-voir femme PERF-être ciel COMPZR 3s.GEN maison 3s-IMPF-être.sur mât GEN bout être.long-ADJZ
How are we going to see the woman being in the sky, whose house is up at the end of a long mast?
Aya-ga-guna azaqib, [sa ayn mon huru a-b-da i ka].
1s-PERF-voir fantôme COMPZR 3s.GEN yeux feu 3s-IMPF-faire 3p LOC
I saw a phantom, in whose eyes fire was burning.
Aya-ga-guna azaqib [# a-da ikjid], [sa huru a-b-da ayn mon ka].
1s-PERF-voir fantôme PERF-faire peur COMPZR feu 3s-IMPF-faire 3s.GEN yeux LOC
I saw a phantom that caused fear, which had fire in his eyes.
Aywa, da aqay tanfust ayo, [sa ni-baya ayn da]!
bien fais 1s histoire REL COMPZR 2s-PERF-vouloir 3s.GEN faire
Well, tell me that story which you wanted to tell!
Idleman dag ka, [sa i-yagor temezday].
Indelman aussi LOC COMPZR 3p-PERF-être.plus.grand lieux.d'habitation
They live also in Indelman, which is bigger than the other dwelling places.
Aya-guna azaqib [# a-da ikjid], [sa ayn mon huru a-b-da i ka].
1s-PERF-voir fantôme PERF-faire peur COMPZR 3s.GEN yeux feu 3s-IMPF-faire 3p LOC
I saw a phantom that causes fear, in whose eyes fire was burning.
Ici aru fo na adi a-may ayn izacenan karad, [sa afo a-fi i b-deraw afo enda nana].
3p.dire homme INDEF DET DET 3s-PERF-avoir 3s.GEN jeunes trois COMPZR un 3s-PERF-être.pas 3p IMPF-partager un COM mère
There was once a man, he had three sons, of whom there was not one who had the same mother.
A-hasi-an izace ayo, [sa anga ne-may tabakart].
3s-PERF-regarder-VERS jeune.homme REL COMPZR 3s.T FOC-PERF-avoir brebis
He looked toward the young man, the one who owned the ewe.
Ni-te-muquis enda he fo [sa ni-ne-debet].
2s-FUT-rencontrer COM chose INDEF COMPZR 2s-NEG.PERF-pouvoir.faire
You will come across anything that you are not able to do.
Accessibility hierarchy
Keenan & Comrie's (1977) accessibility hierarchy: which grammatical functions each strategy can relativise
| Relative pronoun | Gap | sa | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Subject | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| Oblique | ✓ | ✓ | — |
| Possessor | — | — | ✓ |
| Direct object | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| Indirect object | ✓ | — | — |
Postpositions
- ka
- locative: in, at, from, among — fronted (placed after the relative pronoun)
- se
- dative / benefactive: for, to — fronted (placed after the relative pronoun)
- daw
- at (somebody's place) — stays in place after the verb
- enda
- comitative / instrumental: with, and — fronted (placed after the relative pronoun) for manner
Exceptions
- ho (this thing) : ALWAYS uses the gap strategy, never the relative pronoun, although it is definite — Ci na ho [# ni-bayaj]?
- ne (place (definite, cannot be modified by 'fo')) : ALWAYS uses the gap strategy, never the relative pronoun — *I-keni ne fo ka. (agrammatical) → utiliser angu ou edag
Comparison with other languages
- songhay : The other Songhay languages (Koyraboro Senni, Koyra Chiini) use a single strategy, with the relativiser 'ka' (Heath 1999:242)
- berbere tamasheq : Tamasheq (Berber) uses the gap strategy (Christiansen & Levinsohn 2003)
- Tadaksahak is unique among the Songhay languages in having TWO restrictive strategies (relative pronoun + gap)
Relative clauses in the works
Passages from the site’s works on this topic, with the page cited: the original text is authoritative.
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… ust aɣo, sa [ni-Ø-baɣa ayn da] well do 1S story REL COMPZR 2S-PERF-want 3S.GEN N:do Well, tell me that story, (the one) which you wanted to tell! 3 Restrictive relative clauses Tadaksahak contrasts both with related Songhay languages and with Berber languages in employing two restrictive strategies. Other Songhay languages have a single restrictive strategy, using the relativizer ka(ŋ) (Heath 1999:242), while Berber languages use the gap strategy. The existence of two strateg …
Christiansen & Levinsohn (2003), Relative Clauses in Tadaksahak, p. 9
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2 Contents 1 General features 1.1The position of the relative clause with respect to the noun it modifies 1.2 Kinds of relativization strategies 2 Case recoverability strategies 2.1 Subject 2.2 Direct object 2.3 Oblique objects (including indirect objects) 2.4 Possessor 3 Restrictive relative clauses 3.1 The relative pronoun strategy and definite entities Descriptive attributes 3.2 The gap strategy and indefinite entities Existentials ho ‘this thing’ ne ‘place’ 3.3 Headless r …
Christiansen & Levinsohn (2003), Relative Clauses in Tadaksahak, p. 2
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… .......220 4.4.4 Locational predications .........................................221 4.4.5 Possessive predication .........................................223 Relative Clauses...............................................................226 4.5.1 Restrictive relative clause .....................................226 4.5.1.1 Subject relatives .............................................228 4.5.1.2 Object relatives...............................................229 4.5.1.3 Post …
Christiansen-Bolli (2010), A Grammar of Tadaksahak, a Northern Songhay Language of Mali, p. 9
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226 4.5 Relative Clauses Tadaksahak has two different types of relative clauses (RC). The formal difference is the presence or absence of the complementizer sa, that typically introduces a non-restrictive relative clause that gives additional information about the referent. Restrictive RCs, i.e., RCs with identificational information about the referent, show a different construction for subjects and when other parts (object, oblique objects) are relativized. Only subject rela …
Christiansen-Bolli (2010), A Grammar of Tadaksahak, a Northern Songhay Language of Mali, p. 244
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… atures of Tadaksahak, or: Berber or Songhay, this is the question. SIL Electronic Working Papers 2002-005. Christiansen, Regula & Levinsohn, Stephen H. (2003). Relative Clauses in Tadaksahak. SIL Electronic Working Papers 2003-003. Christiansen-Bolli, Regula (2010). A Grammar of Tadaksahak, a Northern Songhay Language of Mali. Thèse de doctorat, Université de Leyde. Claudot-Hawad, Hélène (1993). Le politique dans l’histoire touarègue. Aix-en-Provence, IREMAM (Cahiers de l’IRE …