Some verb morphology features of Tadaksahak

1. Introduction

Having been described as 'language mixte' (Lacroix 1971), this language presents features of Songhay and Berber languages. The observations discussed in this paper deal with the way voice changes are handled. In particular, it shows how the causative is formed. The causative morpheme S(V)- is of Berber origin and prefixed to the verb root as in Berber languages, whereas Songhay suffixes the causative morpheme that is of a very different form (- andi). But only verb roots that are also etymologically from Berber can take the morpheme in Tadaksahak. All roots that are cognates with Songhay are replaced with a Berber root with the same meaning, when causativized, changed to passive voice, or made reflexive or reciprocal.

Pierre-Francis Lacroix was the first to mention Tadaksahak in literature, together with related languages. They were referred to as 'mixed languages' ('langues mixtes'), because of the evidence of strong influence from Songhay as well as from Tamasheq (Lacroix 1968).

In his extensive study of Songhay languages, Robert Nicolai puts Tadaksahak in the group of Northern Songhay (Nicolai 1981:25, 'Songhay septentrional'). Together with Tihisht, Tadaksahak forms the 'nomadic' subgroup. As a part of the Songhay language group, Tadaksahak is placed in the Nilo-Saharan language family. Our observations among some of these Northern Songhay languages would indicate that Tadaksahak is the language most influenced by Tamasheq (and furthermore, on a phonemic and lexical level, by religious Arabic).

2. Phonemes

The examples presented here are given phonemically according to the interpretation documented in our description of the Tadaksahak phonology (Christiansen 2000, manuscript). Vowels: i, e, a, o, u all contrasting in length.

Consonants: labial: b, f, m, p; alveolar: t, d, n, r, l, s, z; (pharyngeal): t, d; palatal: c, j, y, n; velar: k, g, x, h, w; uvaral: q; glottal: h. This corresponds with IPA with the exception of the following signs: Pharyngealization is marked with a dot underneath the sign: /t/, /d/... The alveo-palatal affricates are represented by one sign [t] = /c/, [dʒ] = /j/. The palatal approximant [j] is represented as /y/, the alveolar flap [r] shows as /r/ and the uvaral unvoiced [h] is represented as /h/.

3. Verbal system of Songhay (Gao)

Conjugation: A series of auxiliaries are inflected for tense, aspect, and mode. Preceding the TAM marker is the pronoun or nominal holding the function of subject. All derivations are suffixed as the following formula shows: NP/pron TAM verb(-derivator).

Causative and other voice changing devices: Many Songhay verbs accept the suffix -andi which makes the causative of intransitive verbs (and a few transitives), and the factive of verbs of adjectival quality. Examples: ben 'finish' → ben-andi 'cause to end'; too 'arrive' → too-ndi 'deliver'.

Compound reflexives are formed with the word 'head' without definite and plural suffixes. Example: Faatuma nda Aysa ga (ngi bog) jumay 'Faatuma and Aysa wash themselves'.

4. Verbal system of Tamasheq

Conjugation in Tamasheq is rather complex. The example of the 'past completed aspect' serves as an illustration: ektabay 'I wrote', tektabad 'you (2s) wrote', iktab 'he wrote', tektab 'she wrote', naktab 'we wrote', tektabam 'you (2p/m) wrote', tektabmat 'you (2p/f) wrote', ektaban 'they (3p/m) wrote', ektabnat 'they (3p/f) wrote'.

Causative and other voice changing devices: causative: se-ktab 'make write'; passive: towe-ktab 'be written'; reciprocal/reflexive: na-ktab 'write to each other'.

5. Verbal system of Tadaksahak

Conjugation: Different from Songhay, Tadaksahak always has a subject clitic even if the noun phrase is also present. The TAM markers precede the verb stem and consist of a consonant with a possible vowel: C(V)-. All unbound verb roots begin with a consonant. The unit /clitic+TAM+verb.stem/ has in general only one stressed syllable. Formula: (NP) pron.clitic-TAM-(derivator)-verb.

Causative and other voice changing devices: In Tadaksahak the voice changing morphemes are prefixed to the verb root. This behaviour follows the pattern of Berber languages. Voice changing morphemes: Passive: t(e)-, tuw(a)-; Causative: S(V)- (copies any sibilant present in the verb root, default /s/); Reciprocal/Reflexive: ne-, me-, nem- (distinction inconsistent).

Verb roots beginning with a consonant other than 'y-': Example: Songhay kati 'to stumble' → Tadaksahak gertetef 'to stumble', ne-gertetef 'to stumble (reflexive)', se-gertetef 'to make stumble'.

Verb roots beginning with 'y-': The initial consonant 'y-' is dropped in favor of the consonant of the voice changing prefix. Example: Songhay denji 'to glue' → Tadaksahak yidger 'to be glued', sedger 'to glue', medger 'to be glued together', semedger 'to glue together'.

Verb roots using suppletion when the voice is changed: This second verb class is comparatively small but consists of the most frequently used verbs in daily life. These roots are etymologically Songhay and do not allow the morphemes used by the above two subclasses. Suppletion is the strategy used: a root from Berber is replacing the base root. This replacement is always a bound root; it is not found in the language without a voice changing or other derivational affix.

Examples: Songhay dumbu 'to cut' → Tadaksahak dumbu 'to cut, to slaughter', causative zegzem 'to have slaughtered', passive tegzem 'to be slaughtered'; Songhay naa 'to eat' → Tadaksahak na 'to eat', causative jikja 'to make eat, to feed', passive tekja 'to be eaten, to be edible'; Songhay wii 'to kill' → Tadaksahak wi 'to kill', causative sasuwanqa 'to make kill', passive tuwanqa 'to be killed', reciprocal nemanqa 'to beat each other', causative-reciprocal senemanqa 'to cause to beat each other'.

6. Appendix – List of suppletive verbs

1. One argument verbs: be big: bersemger; be close: man zeheznemheez; cry: hew selhail; be dry: qoq segerig; eat enough: kungusiwente; fall: kanjederodda; fly: sot sesegedag; get up: tunusunkuren; go down: zumbo zezebet; leave: koy seglag; depart: hunus efelef; be placed: keni jinja; run: zuru zezela; sit: gora jayam; spend the day: hoyay sekla; stop: kay sebbed; suckle: lekamkam senkesen; be upright: kay soqta; walk: dida zizu.

2. Two argument verbs: bring: zawji jiwi; call somebody: cew seyrettu; climb/ride: kedi suwunte; cut/slaughter: dumbu zegzem; do: jiga tega; drink: nin jiju; eat: na jikja; fight (also verbally): zog sek(e)nest; gather (food): haba sefred; give: na sekfa; enter in: huru zuguz; hear: mo selatuwes; hit: kar juwut; jump over: sot seseged; kill: wi sasuwanqa; know: bay jijin; lead pulling: gungu sisilwi; leave alone: dis tuwiya; look at: hasi suswud; look for: hurru segmi; love/want: baya jeratu; read/study: qaran seseqra; say: ci sesuwantu; see: guna sekna; steal: zay jijukor.

3. Two argument verbs also used in an intransitive form: swallow: gonzelmez; take: dinizubu; take out: kawjuku; tell: hare mal; break (leg): digdigzerzad; break (thing): baq zerza; construct: cen sekre; cook: hina sesenja; dig: fas zeyez; dress: dabsil sadabi; fill: ton setker; pour: dudu sesenjel; reach: taw suwud; sew: tatab zezmi; throw out: mun sesenjel; tie up: haw suwaqan.

7. Conclusion

To summarize we can recall the facts: The causative morpheme used in Tadaksahak is of Berber origin and prefixed to the verb root as in Berber languages. The same is true for the morphemes of passive voice, reflexive, and reciprocal. Only verb roots that are also etymologically from Berber can take these morphemes in Tadaksahak. Yet many verbs used frequently in daily life are of Songhay origin and do not allow derivation. Such verbs are supplanted with a root of Berber origin when they get derived and are then taking the regular morphemes. Tadaksahak has developed strategies in a unique way to deal with the two very different linguistic systems which influenced this language.

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